A SYSTEMATIC LISTING OF MYTHOLOGICAL THEMES AND MOTIFS

by Marinus Anthony van der Sluijs, M. A.

(return to homepage)

The following listing is a sample of the way recurring mythical themes and motifs can be defined and categorised in order to facilitate comparative research. A classification of motifs along these lines might be more clarifying than the one exemplified in Stith Thompson’s motif-index of folklore and superstition, or those that were supplied by researchers of the hero myth such as Joseph Campbell, Otto Rank, Jan de Vries, and Lord Raglan.

M1: THE BIRTH OF THE HERO

M1a: the youth of the Hero

•           The Hero is known for his youth.

M1b: the Hero’s conception

•           The Hero is of royal parentage.

•           The Father-King was much older than the Mother Goddess.

•           The Hero is the firstborn son.

•           The Hero is born from incest.

•           The Hero is born from a virgin.

•           The Hero was conceived in a dream.

•           The Hero was conceived during a storm, involving rain and clouds.

•           The Hero's father impregnated his mother as or with a lightning flash.

•           The Hero is conceived in a burning fire for the mother.

•           The Hero's mother was impregnated by a serpent.

•           The Hero's mother was impregnated by a tree.

•           The Hero was conceived when his father was drunk or tricked.

M1c: light at the birth of the Hero

•           The Hero is born during an eclipse or in the night.

•           The birth of the Hero is accompanied by the appearance of a star.        

•           The Hero was born in awful splendour or he was born enveloped in fire.

•           The Hero is thrown in a fire as a child.

•           The Hero is sacrificed on a pyre as a child or an attempt is made to burn him.

M1d: the Hero encapsulated in the Mother: enclosure

•           The Hero is born from a womb.

•           The Hero was born from a rock or a stone.

•           The Hero was born from a navel.

•           The Hero was born from his mother in an unnatural way.

•           The Hero was born in a temple or sanctuary.

•           The Hero was born on an island.

•           The Hero was born from a heart.

•           The Hero was born in a cave.

•           The Hero occupied a throne at birth.

•           The Hero was born from a crown.

•           The Hero is born from an egg.

•           The Hero was born as the axle of a wheel.

•           The Hero was born from an eye.

•           The Hero was born on a plate, sometimes to be eaten.

•           The Hero was born from a jar, a cup, a goblet, a vase or a pot.

•           The Hero was born in a ship.

•           The Hero was born from a flower.

•           The Hero was born from an unspecified enclosure.

•           The Hero was born from a cow.

•           The Hero was born in a fan.

•           The Hero was born from a snake.

•           The Hero was born from a tree.

•           The Hero was born on a mountain.

M1e: the Hero ousted at birth: exposure

•           As a child the Hero is brought to a hidden place.

•           As a child, the Hero is exposed on a river or in the sea, usually in a vessel of some kind, or sprinkled with water.

•           The Hero is born in water.

•           As a child, the Hero is hidden in a thicket or falls in a thicket.

•           As a child the Hero is exiled into the desert or the wilds.

•           The Hero is raised in another land or another city.

•           As a child, the Hero is exposed on a mountain.

•           The Hero is brought up in a cave.

•           The Hero is brought up on an island.

•           The Hero comes forth from the womb of his mother at birth.

•           The Hero is cripple or deformed at birth.

•           The Hero is in danger, often because his brothers or other children have been killed.

•           The Father-King devours his own children.

•           The Hero flees upon birth.

•           The Father-King and the Mother Goddess separate upon the Hero’s birth.

M1f: the fostered Hero

•           The Hero is suckled or raised by the Goddess.

•           The Hero is suckled by a cow.

•           The Hero is suckled by a she-wolf, a she-bear, a feline animal, a doe, a pig or a goat.

•           The Hero is suckled by a snake.

•           The Hero is suckled or saved by a bird.

•           The Hero is nourished and raised by a man.

•           The Hero is adopted by a couple.

•           The Hero was taken care of by a group, usually animals.

•           The Hero is nourished with a beverage.

•           The Hero is attached to his umbilical cord.

•           The Hero is poisoned at birth.

•           The Hero has a lock of hair at birth.

•           The young Hero has a beard.

M1g: quick growth of the Hero

•           The Hero grows quickly.

•           The Hero was very intelligent as a child.

M1h: catastrophe at the Hero’s birth

•           The Hero is born in a violent way, amid earthquakes.

•           The Hero killed his mother by his birth.

•           The Hero is fully armed at birth.

•           The Hero mounts a chariot immediately upon his birth.

•           The Hero kills his father upon his birth.

•           The Hero’s brothers or other children are released.

•           A king died at the birth of the Hero.

•           The Hero slew a dragon shortly after his birth.

•           The Hero was dismembered at birth.

•           The birth of the Hero was the rejuvenation of the Father-King.

•           The Hero was his own Father.

•           The Hero sprang from the body of his father at birth.

•           The Hero is circumcised at birth.

•           The Hero is kidnapped and swallowed by the Mother Goddess.

M1i: sound at the birth of the Hero

•           The Hero produced the sound of an animal at birth.

•           The Hero cried and screamed as a baby.

•           The birth of the Hero is ritually announced.

M2: THE DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF THE HERO

M2a: the Hero’s trial and procession

•           The Hero goes around in procession, sometimes as a temporary king and is honoured as such.

•           The Hero goes around in procession and is whipped and beaten.

•           The Hero is arrested and tried before a court.

•           The Hero is out hunting.

M2b: the Hero’s execution

•           The Hero is stoned to death.

•           The Hero is hanged on a tree, gallows or a crucifix.

•           The Hero dies in association with a pillar.

•           The Hero died on the summit of a hill.

•           The Hero is burned.

•           The Hero disappears in a lightning flash.

•           The Hero is dismembered.

•           The Hero is drowned or sprinkled with water.

•           The Hero is decapitated.

•           The Hero is emasculated.

•           The Hero commits suicide.

•           The death of the Hero is related with the change of darkness into light.

•           The body of the dying Hero is red.

•           The god’s head was of particular significance in the death cycle.

•           The Hero was located in a container (ship, basket, flame, halo, kettle, bird) at death.

•           The Hero was associated with a rope, sword or arrow at death.

•           The Hero was a fish at death.

•           The pieces of the dismembered body provide the material for creation.

•           The pieces of the dismembered body are eaten, either as raw meat or in the form of bread.

•           The pieces of the dismembered body are strewn out over the fields to bring fertility.

•           The god dies in an accident with his chariot.

•           The Hero’s heart is removed or broken.

•           The god dies because his hairlock is removed.

•           The god loses a tooth at death.

•           The god dies because his eye is removed.

•           The god dies from a snakebite.

•           The Hero is thrown from a cliff.

•           The Hero is expelled.

•           The Hero dies in battle or by a sword.

•           The god is killed by an animal.

•           The Hero is killed by the Mother Goddess.

M2c: the Hero’s disposal

•           The Hero is enwrapped or embalmed.

•           The Hero is placed in a coffin or chest.

•           The Hero is buried in a ship.

•           The Hero is buried in the earth.

•           The Hero is buried in a cave.

•           The Hero is placed in a stone.

•           The Hero is placed on a rock.

•           The Hero’s grave is marked with a stone.

•           The Hero is exposed on a platform.

•           The Hero is buried in a temple or sanctuary.

•           The Hero’s grave is enclosed.

•           The Hero receives a crown at death.

•           The Hero is given a wreath at death.

•           The Hero’s burial is associated with a chariot.

•           The Hero’s burial is associated with eggs.

•           The Hero’s burial is associated with insects.

•           The Hero’s burial is associated with shells.

•           The Hero’s burial is associated with archery.

•           The Hero’s burial is associated with a phallus.

•           The Mother Goddess holds the dead Hero on her lap.

•           The Hero is buried with many others.

M2d: the Hero’s love-theme

•           The Hero had a love affair with his mother or sister, sometimes even his daughter.

•           The Hero descended to the underworld.

•           The Mother Goddess descended to the underworld.

•           The Hero and the Mother Goddess died simultaneously.

•           The goddess wanders around, searching for the Hero and lamenting his death.

•           The mourning goddess unties her hair.

•           The goddess is hanged or hangs herself.

•           The goddess leaps from a rock.

•           The death of the Hero takes place under catastrophic circumstances, inaugurating the end of an epoch.

•           The Mother Goddess passes through seven gates on her way to the underworld.

•           The Mother Goddess searches for the Hero in the form of a bird or butterfly.

•           The Mother Goddess is accompanied by seven attendants in her search.

M2e: the Hero’s revival

•           The Hero’s garment is torn at birth.

•           The Hero is dead for a certain amount of time.

•           After his death the Hero is invisible for some time.

•           The Hero came back to life.

•           The Hero is rejuvenated.

•           The Hero revives by sprinkling with water or by immersion in water.

•           The fragmented pieces of the Hero’s body are tied together.

•           The Hero revived on the summit of a mountain.

M2f: the Hero’s ascent to heaven

•           The soul is identified with the Hero.

•           The soul was located in the head.

•           The soul is identified with the heart.

•           The Hero or his soul ascends to heaven in an unspecified way.

•           The Hero or his soul becomes a star or a comet.

•           A comet announces death, especially of a king.

•           The Hero or his soul flies away as a serpent.

•           The soul was contained in the hair.

•           The Hero or his soul ascends to heaven in a flame.

•           The soul was fiery or went to a fiery place.

•           The Hero or his soul ascends to heaven in a chariot.

•           The Hero or his soul ascends to heaven in a ship.

•           The Hero or his soul flies away as a bird, a bee or a butterfly.

•           The soul has to cross a body of water.

•           The soul climbs a tree or lives in a tree.

•           The soul climbs a mountain or lives in a mountain.

•           The soul is contained in a stone.

•           The soul was an insect or a mouse.

•           The soul has to be beaten.

•           The soul was the Mother Goddess.

•           The Hero’s soul is a gemstone or is contained in a gemstone.

•           The soul was an eye or housed in an eye.

•           The soul resides in an egg.

•           The soul was contained in a jar.

•           The soul is a pig.

•           The soul is identical with the wind.

•           The Hero ascends to heaven in a wind.

•           There are two or three souls.

•           The soul climbs a ladder to heaven.

M2g: the Hero is a psychopomp

•           The Hero or his soul leads a band of souls.

•           A bird leads the souls to the underworld.

•           A dog, wolf or tiger leads the souls to the underworld.

•           A horse leads the souls to the underworld.

•           A ship leads the souls to the underworld.

•           The souls wander over a soul-path, often the Milky Way.

M2h: the Hero’s death as herald of fertility and prosperity

•           The Hero and the Mother Goddess are reunited.

•           The Hero was a saviour.

•           The Hero’s death and revival takes place in Spring and causes fertility.

•           A tree grows from the dead Hero.

•           Flowers grow from the dead Hero.

M2i: the dying Hero and sound

•           The Hero speaks words during his execution.

•           The soul was identified with sound.

•           Music was played at the Hero’s death.

M3: THE HERO’S DRAGON COMBAT

M3a: appearance of the Hero’s opponent

•           The Hero’s opponent was a giant.

•           The Hero feeds his opponent, who grows quickly.

•           The Hero’s opponent was male.

•           The Hero’s opponent was female.

•           The Hero’s opponent was born of a male god.

•           The Hero’s opponent was born of a female god.

•           The Hero’s opponent dressed like a woman.

•           The Hero’s opponent was his friend.

•           The Hero’s opponent was his father, grandfather, uncle, or father-in-law.

•           The Hero’s opponent was his brother, cousin, or brother-in-law.

•           The Hero’s opponent was his wife, mother, mother-in-law or ancestrix.

•           The Hero’s opponent was the sun.

•           The Hero’s opponent was the moon.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a clam.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a fish.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a crocodyle.

•           The Hero’s opponent was an octopus.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a frog.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a serpent.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a horned or antlered animal (elk, bison, bull or cow).

•           The Hero’s opponent was a boar.

•           The Hero’s opponent had a horse aspect.

•           The Hero’s opponent was an elephant.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a bear.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a feline animal (tiger, jaguar, lion or cat).

•           The Hero’s opponent was a canine animal (wolf or dog).

•           The Hero’s opponent was a bird.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a tree.

•           The Hero’s opponent resided in or near a tree.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a mountain.

•           The Hero’s opponent resided on top of a mountain or a mountain was involved in the combat.

•           The Hero’s opponent was a pillar.

•           The Hero’s opponent was the water.

•           The Hero’s opponent lived in the water or guarded the water.

•           The Hero was opposed by a group of warriors, who are often anonymous.

•           The Hero’s opponent had two heads, (arms), bodies, (eyes), or wings.

•           The Hero’s opponent had three heads, arms, bodies, eyes, or wings.

•           The Hero’s opponent had four heads, arms, bodies, eyes, or wings.

•           The Hero’s opponent had seven heads, arms, bodies, eyes, or wings.

•           The Hero’s opponent had many heads, arms, bodies, eyes, or wings.

•           The Hero’s opponent was of an unspecified nature.

•           The Hero’s opponent lived in the north.

•           The Hero’s opponent lived in a cave or hole.

•           The Hero’s opponent is renowned for his or her hair.

M3b: crime of the Hero’s opponent

•           The gods are afraid for the Hero.

•           The Hero’s opponent has its tail in its mouth.

•           The Hero’s opponent circumambulates the area.

•           The Hero’s opponent stole something.

•           The Hero’s opponent enclosed or swallowed the waters.

•           The Hero’s opponent caused famine.

•           The Hero’s opponent caused earthquakes.

•           The Hero’s opponent swallowed the sun and caused darkness.

•           The Hero’s opponent lived in darkness.

•           The Hero’s opponent produced fire.

•           It is hot in the place of the Hero’s opponent.

•           The Hero’s opponent encircled the house, the city, the land or everybody.

•           The Hero’s opponent devoured the house, the city, the land or everybody.

•           The interior of the Hero’s opponent was a country.

•           The Hero’s opponent was king.

•           The Hero’s opponent guarded a road.

•           The Hero’s opponent contains a treasure or a gemstone and guards it.

•           The Hero’s opponent devoured children or girls.

•           The Hero’s opponent chased the goddess.

•           The Hero’s opponent raped the goddess.

•           The Hero’s opponent devoured the goddess.

•           The goddess is the soul of the Hero’s opponent.

M3c: appearance of the Hero during the combat

•           The Hero swelled and shrinked during the combat.

•           The Hero was a man during the combat.

•           The Hero was the sun during the combat.

•           The Hero was a turtle during the combat.

•           The Hero was an insect during the combat.

•           The Hero was a serpent during the combat.

•           The Hero was a mouse during the combat.

•           The Hero was a boar during the combat.

•           The Hero rode a horse during the combat.

•           The Hero was a lamb or goat during the combat.

•           The Hero was an elephant during the combat.

•           The Hero had a feline appearance during the combat.

•           The Hero was a dog or wolf during the combat.

•           The Hero was a bird during the combat.

•           The Hero had the ability to fly during the combat.

•           The Hero is associated with a tree during the combat.

•           The Hero was a pillar during the combat.

•           The Hero came forth from the waters.

•           The Hero is assisted by a man in the combat.

•           The Hero was assisted by a goddess during the combat.

•           A twin slays the opponent.

•           Four sons battled with the opponent.

•           The Hero was assisted by a group in the combat.

•           The Hero had eight legs.

•           The Hero was yet a child at the time of the combat.

•           The Hero had a white beard.

•           The Hero had long hair.

•           The Hero is red or becomes red during the combat.

•           The Hero sails in a ship during or before the combat.

M3d: crime of the Hero

•           The Hero was charged for murder.

•           The gods are afraid for the Hero.

•           The Hero causes famine.

•           The Hero caused a plague or disease.

•           The Hero got a disease.

•           The Hero caused earthquakes.

•           The Hero caused an eclipse.

•           The Hero caused fire.

•           The Hero becomes king upon defeat of the opponent.

•           The Hero kills children.

•           The Hero was cursed or hated for some reason.

•           The Hero circumambulates house, city or land.

M3e: catastrophic circumstances during the combat

•           A plague or disease is associated with the Hero.

•           Darkness or an eclipse prevails at the time of the combat.

•           The combat takes place during a storm.

M3f: the swallowed Hero

•           The Hero was a guest before the combat.

•           The Hero undid a bond or rope to attack the opponent.

•           The Hero diminished the glory of his opponent.

•           The Hero invaded the kingdom, the city or the house of the opponent.

•           The Hero enters his opponent through the anus.

•           The Hero was entwined by his opponent.

•           The Hero was cooked by his opponent.

•           The Hero was swallowed by his opponent.

M3g: the temporary rest

•           The Hero remains for a certain time in the interior of his opponent.

•           The soul of the slain opponent remains for some time with the Hero.

•           The Hero lives temporarily in quarantine after the murder.

•           The Hero hid himself before or after the combat.

•           The Hero died during the combat.

•           The Hero’s opponent dies in the combat.

•           The Hero overcomes the opponent while the latter sleeps.

•           The Hero has an uneventful reign, giving laws.

•           The eclipse lasts a certain time.

M3h: the Hero’s weapon and stratagem in the combat

•           The Hero’s tool was a shell.

•           The Hero’s tool was a stone.

•           The Hero’s tool was a net or a noose.

•           The Hero’s tool was a chariot.

•           The Hero’s tool was a disc.

•           The Hero is chained.

•           The Hero’s tool was the thunderbolt or lightning.

•           The Hero tool was a branch.

•           The Hero’s tool was a rope or belt.

•           The Hero’s tool was a fishing rod.

•           The Hero’s tool was a string or lock of hair.

•           The Hero’s tool was a sword, spear, hammer or club.

•           The Hero finds a sword in the body of his opponent.

•           The Hero’s tool was the trident.

•           The Hero’s tool were bow and arrows.

•           The Hero killed his opponent with his bare hands.

•           The Hero is whipped, stoned and beaten.

•           The Hero poisoned his opponent.

•           The Hero made his opponent drunk.

•           The Hero is recovered with herbs.

•           The Hero has a drink before or after the combat.

M3i: mutilation

•           The Hero became unrecognisable after the combat.

•           The Hero is recognised by a scar.

•           The Hero received a mark after the combat.

•           The Hero’s opponent is known for or attacked in his eye.

•           The Hero’s opponent is decapitated.

•           The Hero removed the heart, liver, stomach, or throat of his opponent.

•           The Hero’s opponent is flayed.

•           The Hero cut the hairs of his opponent.

•           The Hero’s opponent is emasculated.

•           The Hero removed the tongue of his opponent.

•           The Hero’s opponent lost an ear in the combat.

•           The Hero’s opponent is dismembered.

•           The Hero’s opponent is cut open.

•           The Hero’s opponent is cast into the water.

•           The blood, either of the Hero’s opponent or of his victims, filled the world.

•           The blood of the Hero’s opponent descends to the underworld.

•           The Hero cried in lament of the death of his opponent.

•           The Hero drank from his opponent’s blood.

•           The Hero lit a fire in connection with the combat.

•           The Hero lit a fire inside the body of his opponent.

•           The Hero burns his opponent.

•           The Hero cooked a meal inside the body of his opponent.

•           The Hero ate from the body of his opponent.

•           The Hero became blind during the combat.

•           The Hero is decapitated.

•           The Hero is emasculated.

•           The Hero became naked during the combat.

•           The Hero became bald during the combat.

•           The Hero became lame during the combat.

•           The Hero lost an arm or hand in the combat.

•           The Hero is cast into the water.

•           The Hero was extremely thirsty after the combat and caused drought.

•           The Hero was an irrigator.